Cultural Diversity in Organizations Essay

â€Å"Diversity† has arrived as a descriptive word for the American lifestyle in the modern world. With increasing immigration of people from many countries, many races, and many cultural backgrounds to the United States, the country has become a nest of diversity. Several factors shape the fact that the workforce is becoming increasingly culturally diverse: women represent an increasing percentage in organizations; the difference in age is becoming more evident on all levels; due to continuously changing demands organizations are employing more and more people with diverse professional and specialist backgrounds; there is a growing number of immigrants having different customs, religions and cultures and finally, the ongoing globalization is causing an influx of a large number of expatriates, who comes from various countries in the world, also contributing with different values and cultures. This increasing cultural diversity is both an opportunity and a challenge. Diversity brings with it a wide range of creativity and fresh thinking into the system. Diversity is here, in the population, in the workforce and in the marketplace. Racism, discrimination in the workplace, social stratification, and conflicts in social lifestyles are all negative byproducts of diversity. Thus cultural diversity in America is a highly debated issue because of the numerous problems arising due to it. One of the most serious and explosive issues in the United States today is meeting the business goals within an environment of multicultural diversity. When companies fail to create a culture of diversity and inclusion effectively, the costs can be high – costs arising due to ‘diversity training† and settlement of discrimination lawsuits. Many well-known companies have spent millions of dollars on â€Å"diversity training,† after settling discrimination lawsuits totaling hundreds of millions of dollars. Moreover, diversity also raises issues of interpersonal relations and communications among employees. This fact is underlined by increasing discrimination and class action lawsuits. Diversity impacts every person, every project, and every transaction in today’s business world. Some companies approach it in terms of the noticeable differences among people. What many fail to realize is that diversity is really about personal interaction and emotions, and creating a corporate culture that welcomes all kinds of differences. Managing Diversity: Managing diversity is all about approaching the issue proactively as a business opportunity. There needs to be a culture of diversity within the organization. One of the major obstacles in managing diversity is that many companies view diversity as a problem that needs to be solved. They just take a reactive approach. Supposing there is a lawsuit brought under the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, they just take an initiative that would solve the problem in the short run. Though this approach seems to be successful, in the long run, there is likely to be no impact on the corporate culture in a positive way. Such reactive approaches can negatively impact the workforce morale as they don’t appear to be a genuine commitment to diversity. The path to diversity is not always an easy one. One of the most common obstacles is resentment from white male managers who see diversity as threatening to them. â€Å"Since diversity is typically framed to be about white women and people of color, the focus is rarely on examining what it means to be white and male,† say Bill Proudman and Michael Welp, Partners at White Men as Full Diversity Partners LLC, a consulting firm based in Portland, Oregon. â€Å"White men, and sometimes others, thus conclude that diversity is not about them† (Goffney, 2005) Another obstacle that can arise in a multicultural business environment is resistance to change. When new diversity programs are introduced, it is essential that the employees view it as a genuine effort. Hence, these diversity programs should be tailored to meet the needs of the company’s workforce and integrated into the daily environment. Any diversity initiative should be tied to the company’s bottom line. Even though top management may make the commitment to diversity, if the initiative is not tied explicitly to the company’s bottom line, it does not become a priority for middle managers. The diversity initiative should be integrated into the tools and processes they use to manage employees, including orientation, training and education, and interpersonal communication. If not, existing employees will not accept the diversity initiative and new employees are likely to get disillusioned with a taste of it. Top management must ensure that the commitment to diversity has buy-in at all levels of the organization by making diversity an integral part of company success. Yet another obstacle to managing diversity is that the diversity initiatives might be restricted to training alone and is left as an ‘HR issue†. This narrow focus results relegation of diversity to a single department and companies thus miss out on opportunities to improve and integrate the diversity initiative into other areas of the company. Any corporate initiative should be feedback based, dynamic and flexible. Else, there is the danger that the initiative will remain static. Too often diversity initiatives begin and end with the first efforts undertaken. Diversity and inclusion are part of company culture, and like the culture, diversity must continue to evolve (Adams and Ruch, 2006). Managing all these obstacles require the ability to value a diverse world. This means there should be individual assessment of beliefs about work values. People from differing backgrounds having different experiences bring to work the biases and â€Å"veils† as well as the strengths that arise out of cultural differences. To work effectively with persons from diverse backgrounds, it is necessary to understand others– people from other racial, ethnic and cultural heritages, and people whose values, beliefs and experience are different. This involves learning to recognize when new competencies are needed, knowing how to develop the requisite new competencies, and implementing the competencies effectively. Companies need to assess their state of diversity: What is the state of diversity in our company? Are we making the most of diversity? Do we speak with one voice with respect to diversity? Companies that ask these questions on a continual basis, set strategic goals, measure their progress and evolve their programs in sync with their overall organizational change will be the ones to leverage the full potential of diversity (Adams and Ruch, 2006). Individual Reactions to Diversity: Diversity may be viewed positively or negatively depending on the individual reaction to diversity. In a culturally diverse workplace, there is likely to be prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. This is because of self-fulfilling prophecies. The perceiver develops false belief about a person from a different cultural background. He then treats the person in a manner consistent with that false belief. Ultimately, the person responds to the treatment in such a way to confirm the originally false belief. Other negative reactions of individuals to diversity may include: tension among staff, distrust of anything new, gossip and rumor, open hostility or bullying, absenteeism, tarnishing of the agency’s reputation, low staff retention rates, lack of response to customers and falling standards of service quality (NSW, 2006). In the positive sense, diversity that brings with it community language skills and cultural competencies can be seen as valuable assets to an agency (MSASS, 2006). Customer service improves when employees are able to tackle customers from a range of backgrounds. When employees are encouraged to learn from one another, their skills and knowledge are also enhanced. Diversity can reduce skill shortages at specific times. In a business, diversity gives the advantage of utilizing the language, international expertise and cultural knowledge of staff to identify successful export opportunities. When employees are encouraged to work in their areas of strength and capability, they are happier, more productive and more likely to stay with the agency. Productive diversity is based on the concept that there are potential economic benefits to be gained from valuing different experience, perspectives, skills and the cross-transfer and integration of these into the agency and local economy. Productive diversity makes good business sense in an environment where local diversity and global interconnectedness play a critical economic role (Muhr, 2006). Diversity effects on groups and teams: In the context of working in groups or teams, diversity seems to cause contrasting goals, miscommunication or inter-group anxiety, thereby prohibiting teamwork creativity. Miscommunication and the lack of a common language make it difficult for team members to engage in an exchange of ideas and questions, an exchange, which is essential for effective teamwork (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). If individuals carry out negative stereotyping of outgroups it can prevent them from trusting and engaging with others and can threaten communication patterns within organizations. This is mainly due to a lack of common context and language usage. Anxiety in the team occurs when people identify themselves as placed among people belonging to different diversity categories. Thus, diversity will in this situation make it difficult for the individuals to identify with the team, since there is no unified perception of what values the team represents (Muhr, 2006). In a diverse work team, the values and perceptions of different diversity categories may be contrasting or even mutually exclusive, which is likely to bring about incongruence in goals. Incongruence in goals can limit communication, which is fundamental to the creation of interpersonal relationships and trust. Furthermore, goal incongruence may also prevent individuals from sharing and combining knowledge all together, if they are not able to reach agreement on common goals for pursuing such knowledge processes (Muhr, 2006). On the positive side, it has been shown that diversity in fact improves creativity by promoting variations, thinking out of the box and avoiding ‘groupthink’. Several analyses have shown that teams made up of people with different cultural and educational backgrounds, different personalities, different professional backgrounds and different skills are potentially more creative and innovative than relatively homogeneous teams. This is because diversity creates variations – variations in perceptions, values, ideas, opinions, and methods, which are highly essential for developing a stimulating creative environment (Mohr, 2006). Conclusion: In the global economy today, most companies operate globally. Diversity of thought, culture, geography, race, and gender enables companies to deliver the best solutions to their customers and markets. Diversity pays off both internally and externally. A company that embraces diversity can offer a challenging and creative work environment, and as a result, can attract and retain top talent with diverse backgrounds. There is also a connection between diversity and increased productivity. Diversity also fosters organizational creativity. But despite these benefits of diversity, work teams will not truly benefit from diversity unless sufficient communication, trust and openness are nurtured in the organizational climate. The powerful advantage of embracing diversity in organizations is best brought out by the words of Ted Childs, IBM’s vice president of global workforce diversity. In a recent issue of Fast Company magazine, in a feature article was entitled: â€Å"Difference is Power†, Ted Childs suggests that, â€Å"No matter who you are, you’re going to have to work with people who are different from you. You’re going to have to sell to people who are different from you, and buy from people who are different from you, and manage people who are different from you. This is how [companies] do business. If it’s (diversity) not your destination, you should get off the plane now† (Meisner, 2006). Bibliography: Adams, Brandon and Ruch, Will (2006). Diversity as a core business strategy. http://www. versantsolutions. com/knowledgecenter/EB_DiversityAsACoreBusinessStrategy2. pdf NSW (2006). What is Diversity? http://www. eeo. nsw. gov. au/diversity/whatis. htm Muhr, Louise Sara (2006). Openness to Diversity –Turning conflict into teamwork creativity. Paper submitted for the 10th International Workshop on Teamworking. http://www. mau. se/upload/IMER/Forskning/Diverse/Muhr%5B1%5D. pdf Nahapiet, J. , & Ghoshal, S. 1998. Social Capital, Intellectual Capital and the Organizational Advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23(2). MSASS (2006). Valuing a diverse World. http://msass. case. edu/downloads/academic/diverse. pdf Goffney, Phyllia (2005). Champions of Diversity. Essence. May 2005. http://www. findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m1264/is_1_36/ai_n13660850 Meisner, Lora (2006). The American Quilt – Workplace Diversity. http://career. thingamajob. com/general-career. aspx/The-American-Quilt-Workplace-Diversity. aspx

Exploring and Sharing Youth Work Practice

Exploring the Values and Principles of Youth Work â€Å"Youth work, enables, helps, encourages and celebrates young people’s achievements and efforts. It walks beside a young person on their journey to transition to the adult world. It does not judge but rather provides an open ended support at times and in places where no other service can. † Professor Ted Milburn, CBE President YMCA Scotland Youth work is a process of engaging and building relationships with young people and providing a safe, secure and fun environment where young people feel supported and valued.Young people are central to the planning and delivery of youth work as it responds to youth issues. This offers a range of opportunities and programmes that reflect the many different requirements such as age difference, gender, special needs and race enabling young people to fulfil their potential. The purpose of youth work is well defined in the Youth Work Manifesto 2011, and is as follows: †¢ build se lf-esteem and self-confidence †¢ develop the ability to manage personal and social relationships †¢ create learning and develop new skills encourage positive group atmospheres †¢ build the capacity of young people to consider risk, make reasoned decisions and take control of their lives †¢ develop a ‘world view’ which widens horizons and invites social commitment †¢ build the capacity of young people to influence local and national decision makers The values and principles that underpin youth work are: Young people choose to participate The young person takes part voluntarily. She/he chooses to be involved, not least because they want to relax, meet friends and have fun.The young person decides whether to engage or to walk away. The work must build from where young people are Youth Work operates on young people’s own personal and recreational territory – within both their geographic and interest communities. The young personâ€℠¢s life experience is respected and forms the basis for shaping the agenda in negotiation with peers and youth workers. Youth Work recognises the young person as a partner in a learning process It complements formal education, promoting young people access to learning opportunities which enable them to fulfil their potential.Youth Work safeguards the welfare of young people It provides young people with a safe environment in which to explore their values, beliefs, ideas and issues. Youth Work treats young people with respect It values each individual and their differences, and promoting the acceptance and understanding of others, whilst challenging oppressive behaviour and ideas. Youth Work is concerned with facilitating and empowering the voice of young people It encourages and enables young people to influence the environment in which they live.Youth Work respects and values individual differences It supports and strengthens young people’s belief in themselves, and their ca pacity to grow and to change through a supportive group environment. Youth Work is underpinned by the principles of equity, diversity and interdependence Effective Communication in Youth Work â€Å"We all use language to communicate, to express ourselves, to get our ideas across, and to connect with the person to whom we are speaking. When a relationship is working, the act of communicating seems to flow relatively effortlessly.When a relationship is deteriorating, the act of communicating can be as frustrating as climbing a hill of sand. † Chip Rose, attorney and mediator The act of communicating involves verbal and nonverbal components. The verbal component refers to the content of our message‚ the choice and arrangement of our words. The nonverbal component refers to the message we send through our body language. Some of the methods used to communicate are: Non Verbal CommunicationVerbal Communication †¢ Facial Expression (e. g. frown)†¢ Dialogue †¢ Bo dy Posture†¢ Presentation Hand Gestures†¢ Tone of voice †¢ Pictorial representations†¢ Written word †¢ Appearance (e. g. untidiness)†¢ Pacing and volume of voice Exchanging ideas and thoughts verbally with others is the most common form of communication. However, there can be barriers with this, especially within a youth work setting. Some of these barriers are: Language It is important not to use overly-formal language and jargon, which young people might not understand. Also be aware of the language young people might use, i. e. slang. Stereotypes and generalizationsYouth workers must be sensitive to the complexities of certain situations and should be open to different opinions and views and not see the world as black and white. Jumping to conclusions Youth workers should not assume to know the reasons behind events. It is important to have all the information. Dysfunctional responses Ignoring or not responding to a comment or question quickly underm ines effective communication with a young person. Also, responding with an irrelevant comment or interrupting others while they are speaking also creates a poor environment.Lacking Confidence Whether it is the youth worker or young person, lacking confidence can be a major barrier to effective communication. Shyness, difficulty being assertive, or lack of self-worth can hinder your ability to make your needs and opinions known to others Nonverbal Cues Nonverbal cues can block verbal communication. The wrong facial expressions or body language from a youth worker might put off a young person from opening up or continuing a conversation. Not ListeningNot listening constitutes a major barrier in verbal communication. If a young person thinks that you are not listening then they will not speak with you. Inconsistency Inconsistency can also blocks verbal communication. If you say one thing and then later change your stance, it might confuse or frustrate a young person. Verbal communicati on barriers can put a serious strain on relationships that ultimately need to be collaborative in order to most effectively meet the needs of our young people.Use of these â€Å"communication errors† results in increased emotional distancing between youth worker and young person and can result in conflict and a negative environment for everyone involved. Albert Mehrabian, a US Educational Psychologist, has developed a famous formula for how verbal communication works. The formula is: 7% of meaning is in the words that are spoken. 38% of meaning is in the way that the words are said. 55% of meaning is in facial expression and body language. The key message here is simple – It's not what you say, it's the way that you say it. Nonverbal Communication tableGesture | Common Interpretation | Hair Twirling | Flirting, nervous, uncertainty, incompetence| Placing your hand in front of your mouth | Insecurity, uncertainty| Rubbing your arm or leg | Nervous, uncertainty| Slumped posture | Can’t be bothered, low self-esteem, boredom, alienation| Open palms | Open, honest| Palms down | Serious, domination| Clenched fist | Angry, frustrated, aggression| Holding hands behind back | Hiding something, defensive| Wringing hands | Nervousness, anxious| Arms folded over chest | Annoyed, bored, uninterested, low self-esteem| Too little eye contact | Shy, dishonest, nervous, no confidence|Gesture | Common Interpretation | When exaggerated| Forward Lean | Interested, concern, affection| Troubled| Direct eye contact | Interested | Aggressive| Unique dress/hairstyle | Confident, creative | Attention seeking, confused| Upright posture | Confident | Feeling uneasy| Handshake | Friendly | Intrusive, eccentric, aggressiveAn assertive person has the ability to express the needs, wants and emotions in a controlled manner without violating the rights of others or being aggressive. Characteristics of an assertive person might include: †¢ Knowledge of their own right s †¢ Ability to initiate and sustain comfortable relationships with a variety of people †¢ Willingness to compromise †¢ Ability to discuss things in a controlled manner The difference between an assertive person and an aggressive person are as follows: Assertive =â€Å"Win, win† †¢ Expresses feelings and thoughts honestly and appropriately †¢ Shows respect for themselves and others †¢ Considers the rights and needs of others Can effectively influence, listen and negotiate so others co-operate willingly Aggressive = â€Å"winner, loser† †¢ Expresses feelings and thoughts in a way which violates the rights of others †¢ Shows disrespect for themselves and others †¢ Puts own needs above others and denies people choice †¢ Can negatively influence, not listen and not negotiate and make others do what they don’t want to do †¢ Puts own needs above others and denies people choice Interpersonal skills are the skills u sed when interacting with other people. In a challenging situation, effective interpersonal skills are essential. In a youth work setting, some of the skills a worker should have are: An ability to ‘read’ other people and build rapport †¢ Being able to ask useful questions †¢ You can more easily influence people †¢ You can handle conflict and challenging situations in constructive ways †¢ Show understanding With good interpersonal skills communication and relationships between young people and workers are enhanced. Building Relationships in Youth Work â€Å"The flexibility and skills of youth work staff enable them to get trust from young people†¦ in many instances for the first time that a young person has been able to trust an adult. I never cease to be amazed at how the youth work process can transform some of our most vulnerable young people and change their view of self and society in such a positive fashion. †Alex Linkston, CBE, Pri nce’s Trust Volunteer, retired CEO West Lothian Council and Chair of YouthLink Scotland. It is important to promote positive relationships with young people in youth work to: †¢ Provide learning and encourage success †¢ Ensure everyone is given a voice and feels heard †¢ Empower those with conflict to resolve it for themselves †¢ Preserve a sense of belonging and create positivity †¢ Develop and maintain mutual respect †¢ Build and repair relationships †¢ Develop world view and broaden horizons †¢ Build social skills and provide Life Skills Five qualities, which constitute a positive personal relationship, are: †¢ Trust †¢ Mutual respect †¢ Communication †¢ Understanding †¢ Familiarity/Common groundFive qualities, which constitute positive youth work relationships, are: †¢ Trust †¢ Approachable †¢ Non judgemental †¢ Good listener/empowering †¢ Respect So what are the differences between a personal relationship and a youth work relationship? – Even though the words used above to describe the two different types of relationships tend to be different they are quite similar in that they involve helpfulness and working together. In a professional relationship you often motivated by a task/goal (i. e. the young person’s learning, etc. ) that you are working together to complete and achieve. In a personal relationship the ultimate goal is happiness and building true trust.There are two main themes that emerge with some regularity when reading about relationships in youth work. These themes detail why positive relationships in youth work are important and are stated below: Education for relationship The ability to develop good and satisfying interpersonal relationships is seen as the main, or a major reason for fostering learning. This has been one of the main themes lying behind many informal educators concern with social education. Education through relatio nship Our relationships are a fundamental source of learning. By paying attention to the nature of the relationship between educators and learners, it is argues, we can make a significant difference.In particular, the quality of the relationship deeply influences the hopefulness required to remain curious and open to new experiences, and the capacity to see connections and discover meanings (Salzberger-Whittenberg et al. 1983: ix). Introduction to Planning and Evaluating Youth Work Plan (Needs & Aims) †¢ Describe why the youth work group/programme is needed by the young person and/or the community †¢ State who has identified the need for the group. (I. e. young person/Social work/ groups/partner organisations) †¢ Describe what the project is about in â€Å"broad terms†. State what the group is aiming to achieve. The need for a group can be identified through: †¢ Discussions †¢ Formal consultation †¢ Social Network surveys †¢ Partnership meet ings †¢ Community lead steering groups †¢ Statistics †¢ Government Policies Outline (Objectives/Implementations) List the objectives (specific aims) of the group and make a series of actions that will be put in place to ensure each of the stated objectives is achieved †¢ Describe how the objectives will be carried out/delivered How many beneficiaries/Age group/gender †¢ List who will benefit from the group (i. e. young person/social work/parents) †¢ List any information about the target group Resources (Funding, staff, etc. ) †¢ List any resources required such as money, staffing requirements, equipment, area, time and transport, etc. Partners Involved †¢ List any other agencies/partners that may be involved with the group/project such as police/SW/school/NHS Intended Experiences & Outcomes Describe how the group relates to the CfE capacities (Confident Individuals, Responsible Citizens, Successful Learners and Effective Contributors) †¢ Highlight the importance of the quality and nature of the participant’s experiences †¢ Describe the outcome of the group (i. e. what is to be achieved) †¢ Assess the progress in the learning plan and look at next steps Intended Impact (Data Definitions) †¢ Describe the purpose/point of the group. †¢ Describe how the group will have a positive effect on the all-round development and life chances of the young people involved Evaluation †¢ State how the group will be evaluated (i. e. participant feedback)

Racism within football/Soccer Essay

As A glory hunter I support Middlesbrough.Admittadly not the greatest club in the Premier League.I take any victories and cup excursions with open arms.One such occasion was when they rose to the dizzy heights of the Zenith Data final at Wembley.Having travelled from Germany all night I was more than happy to be drinking in the pubs near the ground.I eventually started to talk to a group of Chelsea fans,it quickly became clear that they were racist in their attitude to any player who was Black and would not cheer if any Black player for Chelsea scored† ?I asked them what they would do if they were in a European Cup final and it was a Black player who scored the winning goal or even a hat trick† ? â€Å"No† was the reply  Ã¢â‚¬Å"we would just sit in our seats and do nothing â€Å"I couldn’t believe it.I finished my drink and left the pub.If I was honest I couldn’t believe their bigoted attitude. I found it especially hard as at the time as I had just finished an active service tour of Northern Ireland where I had served along side Black people who I had worked closely with.I often wonder what those hypocrites would make of the present Chelsea team, full of very talented Black players.No doubt Chelsea are a better because of these players who have raised the clubs game and profile within England and Europe. Therefore to study football and how racism it and it’s affect upon society was an opportunity too good to be missed. An obvious starting point would be to define racism ? It be divided into three categories overt,institututional and covert. Black players within the game are routinely subject to overt racism at games (Gruneau,.(1999).Although not as frequently, they and their families can still be subjected to covert racism.In recent times institutional racism has never been far from the public eye especially in light of the Stephen Lawrence enquiry about his murder and the subsequent investigation that followed which was dogged by institutional racism (MacPherson,1999).Football and the structure of the game would also appear to being affected by institutional racism.There are very few Black coaches and managers being employed. Indeed what are the sociological effects this is having and how are these theories affecting the game of football ? Whilst it could be debated that football is autonomous it still has had to acknowledge the presence of racism.UEFA,Fiffa, along with respective F.A’s in the British Isles have sought to address this problem with campaigns e.g. ‘Football Unites Racism Divides’ and ‘Show racism The Red Card’. However football may be unwittingly providing an arena for any resentment and alienation that exists within communities.This behaviour is then displayed at matches.Although it would be hard to justify any racial behaviour of a player *Bowyer & Woodgate* .But what are the UEFA, Fiffa and the respective F.A’s doing in order to combat this problem ?Whilst it is an aim of this paper to acknowledge schemes that have been put in place to eradicate racism If we evaluate the success if any of schemes that have been run by UEFA, Fiffa and the F.A’s. we can see in recent events as those that took place at Sunderland in April 2003 these schemes are having little or no affect The game of football has changed.Clubs are now run as PLC’s (Public Limited Companies) they are heavily reliant on the support of sponsors and television rights to games.It could be suggested that these companies need to look at their responsibility towards their morale obligation of ridding the game of racism. *Bowyer & Woodgate* Sarfraz Najeib.Najeib along with his brother Shahzad and three friends, then students at Leeds Metropolitan University had been attending the the Majestyk night-club club when on leaving the club an argument took place with the then Leeds United player Jonathan Woodgate and Lee Bowyer.Bowyer was cleared of attacking student while Woodgate received 100 hours’ community service for affray. Little has been done by these companies to promote or forward any anti-racist programmes. Television companies appear willing to manipulate the fixture list for T.V. scheduling but are not willing to accept that there is a problem with racist behaviour. Consequently it is the intention of this paper in its it final section to propose a financial strategy that could be used to tackle the problem of racism within football. The British public has always had an affinity with the game of football.It has evolved and changed from ‘no rules’ to pre-war modern image onto a post-modern multi Million pound industry.High transfer fees and high wages are the norm.All seater stadiums especially in the Premier League better facilities and better standards are now expected. Satellite broadcasting reaches out to a larger audience than ever before with Sky paying in excess of  £1.2 Billion pounds for the rights.Terrestial T.V has also been engaged in this battle,culminating in the BBC losing a Saturday night national institution’Match Of The Day’. I.T.V now presents a polished and stylish programme for the fans along with a Black pundit and a female presenter,unheard of in previous decades (Giulonotti,1999). Broadsheet newspapers now actively report about football at great length.This domain was primarily reserved to the tabloid press and low quality magazines. Stadiums have changed for a number of reasons e.g. the Taylor Report 1995 after Hillsborough.The disasters at Bradford and Hysel forced governing football agencies to evaluate the structure of stadiums and the fans that attended these stadiums.These changes have attracted different fans Evidence to support this can be seen in the growth of executive boxes at football grounds (Greenfield, & Osborn,2001).Working class fans now regularly mix with the middle class. No longer is the primary class of fans attending the game working class. Racism is an easy term to use term.However it can and does have far reaching affects in society. There appears to be many definitions of the term although all these definitions arguably mean the same thing. Racism can be defined as a specific form of discrimination usually based on skin colour or membership of a minority ethnic group. It’s a system of group dominance. This system is both structural and ideological. That is, it  embodies political, economic, and socio-cultural structures of inequality. It involves processes and practices of exclusion, oppression and marginalisation, as well as stereotypes and symbols required by these structures and processes (Gilroy,1995).Within this process there are three sub forms of racism,overt,covert and and institutional.Overt racism can be seen as something violent, even thuggish.It can be displayed through violent behavior,threats to the person and even through demonstrations and political parties.However some political parties e.g. the British National Party (B.N.P) are no strangers to overt and covert racism.Covert racism seeing a rise in popularity i.e. people nowadays are reluctant to express openly their dislike of and contempt fo r minorities, indeed they are not prepared to express publicly a sentiment that could be interpreted as racist. Racism (Gilroy,1995). Institutional racism has been defined as ordinary people going about their normal day to day business but producing outcomes that are disadvantageous to Black and ethnic minority groups.This form of racism can have catastrophic effects with regard to accommodation/housing, health and education leading to poor results for students (Cashmore, & McLaughlin, 1991).Whilst this example is related to racism within the state aparetus,a clear definition can be given by examining the Police and the ‘McPherson Report’Mcpherson reported that the Police was Institutional racist.This was protrayed in their investigations of racially motivated crime.A procedure known as ‘stop and search’.Routinly carried out against Black people. In short the very essance in which the Police went about their duties was institutional racist to people from ethnic minoroties.In the report he comments â€Å"Unwitting racism can arise because of lack of understanding, ignorance or mistaken beliefs. It can arise from well intentioned but patronising words or actions. It can arise from unfamiliarity with the behaviour or cultural traditions of people or families from minority ethnic communities. It can arise from racist stereotyping of black people as potential criminals or troublemakers. Often this arises out of uncritical self-understanding born out of an inflexible police ethos of the â€Å"traditional† way of doing things. Furthermore such attitudes can thrive in a tightly knit community, so that there can be a collective failure to detect and to outlaw this breed of racism. The police canteen can too easily be its breeding ground†( http://www.archive.official). With these definitions of racism established we can now examine why are there so few Black players within the game as a whole.Foot ball employs only 20% of Black players (Black ,2001).Whilst there are no figures for players with an Asian or Oriental background it would be fair to argue that these players are even fewer and at best token gestures.With only 1% of black people watching the game (holmes,2003.Appendix).This problem is not just confined to Football in Great Britain. If we look at America and the game of basketball we can see that for a long time they suffered same problem.Jay Coakley argues the reason why Black people were under-represented within coaching and management, was because of strong prejudices emanating from owners of clubs.These prejudices were founded in the belief that unless the Black coach or player make a dramatic impact upon their arrival they were doomed to failure.Coakley also adds that there was a strong stereotypical myth perpetrated by white people about Blacks, that there are â€Å"inferior intellectually† (Coakley,2001:301).While these beliefs are unfounded Coakley does however go onto argue : â€Å"that these barriers no longer exist, although it would be difficult to conclude that race and skin colour have become irrelevant† â€Å"(Coakley,2001:301). Therefore an argument may exist that these problems which America experienced we too are now experiencing ? Therefore Football has to tackle these problems and eradicate them in order to open the game out to a larger audience. UEFA Chief Executive Gerhard Aigner recently commented that racism was â€Å"an evil and a poison† (Uefa.com).In a recent conference held by UEFA at Stamford Bridge Chelsea.Aigner also commented that â€Å"We have to be prepared to reflect our duty.We have to to tackle racism, xenophobia and other forms of discrimination and hatred.† (uefa.com)Whilst in the conference acknowledgement was given to f.a.r.e {Football Against Racism in Europe},there was also an acknowledgement that there is still much left to do in order to tackle some of the root causes.Within the British Isles there appears to be a multi-pronged attack on racism by the English,Scottish,Welsh and Irish F.A.s with the administration of Football Unites Racism Divides {f.u.r.d} and Show Racism The Red Card {s.r.t.r.c}. S.r.t.c aim is to â€Å"combat racism through anti-racist education and professional footballers are showing the way in terms of making a stand and fighting racism†(srtrc.org). A member of f.a.r.e it targets school children as it’s audience and with the distribution of leaflets at football matches it seeks to capture a wider audience.It can count on the support of Sir Bobby Robson,Bryan Robson,Ian Wright,Gary Linekar amongst it’s supporters some of the most respected names in football.F.u.r.d seeks a more captive audience†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Children. F.u.r.d â€Å"believes that football, as the world’s most popular game, can help bring people together – people from different backgrounds, to play, watch and enjoy the game, and to break down barriers created by ignorance or prejudice†. (furd.org).F.I.F.A in July 2001 put in place a fourteen point plan to tackle the problem.Amongst it’s recommendation was that there has to be an acceptance of r esponsibility amongst all those connected with the game to try and eradicate the game of racism.This is interesting only for the reason this is in direct contravention to one of F.I.F.A.s rules about international school children playing football together. FIFA have a regulation which bans foreign kids from playing with English kids.Chapter IV, article 12 of the FIFA Regulations governing the status and transfer of players (pressbox.co.uk) The Mixer Soccer Academy, a full time private football academy in Dorset which attracts junior soccer stars from all over the globe, have a situation where their foreign students, playing and training football alongside English students all week, all year, are not allowed to play football with them at the weekend because the local Dorset FA. will not allow them to sign the appropriate forms and thereby allow them to play with the English kids. Perhaps if F.I.F. A revised their 2001 ethos and brought it up to date with other initives being run in Europe there would not be this contradiction in terms ?Giulianotti argues that whilst these schemes are important they are fundamentally flawed in their belief that all racists who attend the game belong to some political right wing extremist group or a hooligan group.Not so many hooligan groups contain Black people.Giulianotti argues powerfully  that â€Å"this smug belief therefore removes the real from this type of behaviour†. (Giulianotti,1999 :163).When it is clearly not the case as he cites the first game played by John Barnes the first Black player for Liverpool who was taunted with racist crowd chant’s throughout the game. So how can we move forward.What I am about to present to you is not the holy grail of anti racist behaviour.Whilst there was an acknowledgement in the paragraph above about F.I.F.A.s short comings there was a chink of light in their fourteen point plan that may provide the foundation to the problem.F.I.F.A stated that it â€Å"requires the media to strongly condemn all acts of racist behaviour or declarations by any persons or groups, and to refrain from reporting such behaviour or declarations in a manner that may serve to provoke confrontation, and calls upon football websites (including those of clubs and national associations) to incorporate prominent anti-racism messages on their home-pages†(fifa.org). Let us take this a step further.Sky Sports pays the Premier League  £1.2 Billion pounds for the right to screen football.This money sees little light outside the Premier League if any at all. £2 Billion can be placed into an independent scehme,designed to target racism.This will provide a pro active starting point to tackling some of the root causes of racism within football. Within this target : All clubs MUST participate in this scheme. Packages that tackle the key issues of racism. Better training for stewards. Actively seek to promote an anti-racist culture within the club and stands. Accountability. Actively seek to employ players at playing and coaching levels from an  ethnic background. The scheme has to be independent of the clubs.Primarily ran by elected members.These members must have no connection with a club or T.V.companies in any capacity. They would be given the power to award grants in order to aid clubs combat racism.Bonus payments could be made for meeting their set targets.But also the power has to be given to the panel in order to fine clubs that have failed to meet any basic level set.Nothing radical or complicated in this proposed package.These key points have to be implemented at all levels and everywhere in the club.You could be forgiven for thinking that all clubs actively employ this code of practice. Wrong.Richie Moran comments about racism within football.He comments that he was insulted and abused about everything from the colour of his skin to his hair style.This abuse was not only from the fans but it was equally directed from his fellow team mates.Consequently he left the game because of this abuse (Garlan,Malclom & Rowe,2000). You could also be forgiven for thinking this is an isolated case it would never happen now,Clubs are more aware and are actively seeking to promote an Anti-Racist ethos ? Wrong.During the compiling of this paper letters were sent to the following clubs{ appendix} Bradford, Oldham, Middlesborough, Sheffield United all disturbingly failed to reply to letters sent to them.Burnley were also contacted, they replied to the letter but were to busy to enclose any literature !{ appendix}Sunderland however were different. They were more than happy to distribute information about why and how they actively tackle racism at the Stadium Of Light.Sunderland do seem to have a pro-active attitude towards stamping out racism within football therefore it seems ironic.In the recent European qualifying match at the stadium Of Light there game was marred by violenceAmong those held were 25 individuals known to be associated with hooligan elements of Sunderland and Newcastle football clubs Police said no Turkish fans were arrested as a result of the match, which England won 2-0. The match had been given a high police priority, with around 1,000 officers on duty to prevent trouble between England fans and 5,000 Turkish supporters. At the height of the violence bottles, car wheel trims and bar stools were thrown at police. Superintendent Jim Campbell, of Northumbria Police, said â€Å"the policing of the event had been successful†! (www.bbc.) Football has changed.From it’s origins of ‘no rules’ to a modern post war image and then now into its present post-modern image.High transfer fees, high ticket prices and high wages have changed the game.Although argumentative there is a belief that the game has drifted away from it’s working class origins into a more middle class audience.Stadiums are more modern, they had to change.’Italia 90†² saw little or no hooliganism. Together with a good run for the English team helped promote a positive image of the game in the U.K. Satellite television has helped changed the environment by which football is viewed.However whilst the officials stand and pat themselves on the back they are becoming guilty of complacancy.We have still not rid the game of racism.Evidence from the England game against Turkey has shown it.As A consequence critics would argue that the English F.A got off lightly with a fine and not having to play the next home qualifying gam e against Slovakia behind closed doors at Middlesborough. Footballers their families and friends regularly suffer from the three forms of racism as set out in this paper covert,institutional and overt racism happen on a regular basis.Poor job prospects for managers and coaches and taunts from players and fans are common place.Fiffa,Uefa and the respective F.A.s are right to acknowledge this problem.However it would appear actions are short in their forth coming and it is nothing more than lip service.Fiffa almost got it right in their 2001 proposals when they said the media and other agencies have a duty to respond to racism.In order to survive clubs are dependant upon the large amount of income that television rights generate. Television companies have influence within the corridors of football.Why therefore can they not influence clubs to make a more aggressive stand towards racism ?By not taking an aggressive stand towards racism within the game, the television companies are condoning racism. It may be because they fear it is an issue too large to tackle on their own. Therefore they have to realise they are not alone in this stand.Simply by sticking their heads in the sand and not acknowledging they have power and the responsibility to take the appropiate action, they are allowing the biggots to go unchallanged and prosper un-hinderd.Admittadly it is hard for any fan to confront a person(s) using racist language,but there are phone and text lines which they can use at the match to inform stewards and the  police.Why not write a letter to the club alerting them to this issue. Ultimately however the responsibility lies with the fan and society for this behaviour and it’s eradication from the game. Certain sections of our society are happy to abuse someone because they are Black and playing for the opposition. Surely as a modern society this cannot be right ? BIBLIOGRAPHY. Coakley,J.(2001).Sport In Society.McGraw-Hill International Cashmore,E & McLaughlin,E.(1991) Out Of Order Policing Black People.Routledge. Garland,J,Malcolm,D & Rowe,M. (2000).The Future of Football.Frank Cass Gilroy,P.(1995) There Ain’t No Black In The Union Jack Routledge Giulianotti,R.(1999) Football : A Sociology Of The Global Game Polity Press. Greenfield,S & Osborn,G.(2001) Regulating Football.Pluto Press. Gruneau,R.(1999) Class,Sports And Social Development.Human Kinetics. Kirk, B.M.(1996) A Simple Matter Of Black and White ? Avebury. The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry.(March 1999). H.M.S.O. INTERNET. http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/sli-06.htm#6.6 http://www.uefa.com/uefa/aboutuefa/Communications/index.html http://www.fiffa.com/ www.the-fa.org/ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2820125.stm www.pressbox.co.uk/Detailed/68011.html http://www.srtc.org/srtrc.htm http://wwwfurd.org/ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2911623.stm NEWSPAPERS. Black,L (Dec18th,2001).One of The Lads.The Guardian.

EUROPEAN UNION LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EUROPEAN UNION LAW - Essay Example The reason why Costa wanted an application of Article 177 is to be able to draw an interpretation of Articles 102, 93, 53 and 37 of the said Treaty, all alleged by Costa to have been infringed by the new law. These provisions deal with proscribed legislative acts of Member States. In February 1964, the Milan Court filed for an application of preliminary ruling before the European Court of Justice (ECJ). 3 (a) Costa. The position of Costa was that ECJ acquires jurisdiction by the mere application of a preliminary ruling whereby the application clearly shows the need for Court interpretation of any of the provisions of the Treaty. Moreover, it is not within the prerogative of the Court to determine how a court of a Member State has arrived at the fact of the referral. 5 (b) Italian Government. The Italian Government contended that the application for preliminary hearing was in itself inadmissible because it asked the ECJ not only to interpret the Treaty but also rule on the compatibility of the Italian law with the Treaty. A national court, according to the Italian government, does not have recourse to the ECJ on the basis of an application for preliminary ruling when the dispute attendant to the case requires only the application of a domestic law and not one of the provisions of the Treaty. The only way to involve the ECJ, according to the Italian government, is through Articles 160 and 170 which deal with the European Commission’s direct intervention by bringing case to the ECJ after determination of Member State’s non-compliance with its orders and when a Member State brings a matter against another Member State to the ECJ, respectively. 6 Rationale for the Decision: Whether or not a case involves the application of domestic law and not the Treaty itself, the ECJ can acquire jurisdiction over it once an application for preliminary ruling is submitted showing a need for the interpretation of any of the Treaty

Relate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Relate - Essay Example There have been must studies of the price of gasoline in the United States for the past decades. Espey in the Journal on energy says that the cost of gas largely depends on the elasticity of demand for gas. In a period of less than a year Espey established, the elasticity was negative 0.26%. Therefore, an increase in the cost of gas by $1 reduces the demand by 2.6%. In the long term, the elasticity changed to negative 0.58%. Therefore, price elasticity of demand can explain low prices of gas in the U.S. According to Espey increase in price of gas reduces the demand for gas among consumers. For producers to realize increased revenue over a short run and in the long run, the price of gas ought to low (Espey 52). Given that the U.S consumers changes their demand for gas due to increase in price, taxing gas by the government will have the same effect of lowering the demand for gas consumption. Gratch in his study found that the tax on gas in United State of America differed from that of Britain, France and Norway. These countries had high taxes on gasoline than the U.S. Saudi Arabia and Venezuela pay for 12 cents per gallon, but they are leading producers of gas in the world. The discrepancies on the prices can be explained by tax rates in different countries. The U.S tax rates are 15-20% while the European nation taxes at a value higher than 20%. Elasticity, therefore, is a determinant of gas price in the U.S. Gas has positive and negative externalities. It has by products are used in many sphere of life including jet fuels, to heavy machine diesel. Nonetheless, it has the negative externalities of gasoline that affects negatively the cost of gas. In the U.S and even other developed nations, the public is now turning to clean energy. Consequently, less gas is used in the manufacturing. Nuclear powered electricity has substituted gas consumption decreasing its demand and negatively

Managing, Evaluating and Developing Human Resources Essay

Managing, Evaluating and Developing Human Resources - Essay Example It has ensured that employees, no matter their level of experience, gain the necessary skills and get better opportunities for training. For improved employee performance, all employees should be computer literate and proper courses should be designed to enable them encounter technology as it evolves. Training and development is a strategy aimed at developing and improving the skills of an employee. According to Pride, Hughes and Kapoor, â€Å"employee training is the process of teaching operations and technical employees how to do their present jobs more effectively and efficiently† (2011, p. 264). Companies which want to stand still in competition opt to provide constant training to their employees on any technical occurrence. Employee training has been eased with the introduction of internet based training, because it saves cost and time. Williams says that â€Å"during the late 1990s, the learning support organisation at Telcordia technologies... began to actively pursue online delivery of performance support materials for the software applications that they supported† (2004, p. 8). This shows that technological training has been a long time training strategy, but has been growing steadily and also evolving with the changes in technology. When analysing what to offer in training, employers have to consider what is needed for the training. What appears to be most essential in training is motivation. Training also varies depending on what the management considers most crucial. Some employees have to be trained on technological skills, but since training may be expensive, its advisable that the company classify what is most essential. Training is important for employees so that they can be equipped with skills, attitude and knowledge required to do their job well. They are taught on how to interact with the customers and managers use this opportunity to motivate them. Technology came due to

Reflection on the Cultural Geography of Thailand Essay

Reflection on the Cultural Geography of Thailand - Essay Example With the intention of understanding the geography and the culture of Thailand, I have done research searches through literature books and sources with the inclusion of the internet. From the reading sources, some of the aspects that emerge as the prominent definers of the geography and culture of the country are religion, architectural design, language and the social life of the people of the country. The rich social art of Thailand amalgamates art and healing that draws from the traditional aspect making the country a hub for culture and civilization. With the intention of learning about the people of Thailand, the learning outcome for the semester has provided me with adequate information to know that Thailand is a country that is composed of 67,741,401 people according to the national population estimate 2013. The natural population increase rate of the country is 35.4% with the birth rate being 11.26births /1000. The life expectancy rate of the country is 74.18 years and the infant mortality rate being 9.86/1000. In relation to the culture and way of life of the people of Thailand, the semester study has impacted me with information to realize that the country is composed of four major language groups. The language groups are the Aheu, Akeu, Akha, Ban Khor Sign, and Bisu. The country's national language is Thai, but there are other minor languages spoken in the country. The country has approximately 48 religions with Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Hinduism being the dominant religions. The country thus shares a lot of cultural and religious similarity to other Asian countries like China. The traditional form of architecture has changed paving way for the building of more modern and elegant housing and religious sanctuaries in the country thus representing an immense socio-cultural change in the country.

Implementing Electronic Health Record innovations for Pressure Ulcer Essay

Implementing Electronic Health Record innovations for Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Management - Essay Example Regardless of the size of the project, the proper integration of a skilled workforce, proven strategies and technology at MICU, would see the successful implementation of the program in various units for easy use by clinicians. If properly utilized, EHR can be the silver bullet to the problem of inconsistencies that are the order of the day in documenting pressure ulcer management processes through paper-work. Prevention of Pressure Ulcer According to Hagens and Krose (2009), to maximize the benefits the EHR for Pressure Ulcer prevention and management, it would be vital to keep problem lists, medical prescription lists and sensitivity lists in all units handling the patients s(National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, 2007). In the MICU case, medical assistants or skin care specialists should enter medications and sensitivities from the paper work, and physicians would enter the problem lists. It would be appropriate to enter data shortly before an appointment is due, and take the cha rt to scanning. In doing so, the pressure ulcer management units will have an entirely electronic chart ready for patient handling when the patient arrives at the units (Kerr, 2009). Alternatively, it would be appropriate to enlist registered nurses for the task of problem list entry before the program is ready for use by various clinicians. Assessment for Pressure Ulcer For acute care, the first assessment should be carried out on admission and after every 1-2 days or whenever the condition of the patient changes (Clarke, Bradley, Whytock, Handfield, Van der Wal, & Gundry, 2005). At MICU, the system would be programmed to notify the health care providers to do assessments every 24 hours. For home health, the first assessment would be carried out on admission, and re-examination done as soon as the patient resumes care, during recertification, refer or release, or whenever the patient’s health condition changes (Adler, 2010). At MICU, it would be appropriate to reassess the p atient’s condition at each nursing visit. And for long-term care in MICU, the initial screening for patients would be appropriately done on admission and every week during subsequent missions. Determining Risk Levels Several electronic tools for risk assessment are accessible to assist in predicting the level of risk of the disease (National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, 2007). They include machines with values that when summed up together, can enable the health care providers to determine the risk score in totality. The Braden and Norton Scales are proven tools that can be used to provide an electronic data for predicting the risk of pressure ulcer risk in MICU. According to Ayello, Capitulo, Fife, Fowler, Krasner, Mulder, Sibbald, and Yankowsky (2009), these tools help clinicians to determine the risk values, which eventually can lead to the formulation of the most appropriate and opportune medical interventions. Norton Scale The Norton Scale comprises five groups: physica l and mental conditions; mobility, activity, and incontinence. These factors are valued from 1– 4 (Tavenner, & Sebelius, 2012). The total values usually range from 5 to 20. An entry of the following data to the EHR system can help clinicians to cope with the condition in a more effective and faster way: Mild Risk values at 14: Moderate Risk at 13: and High Risk at 12. The scale should be credible and kept in such condition to avoid errors in the final readings of data (Liang, 2007). Any alterations can change or render it an

Nursing Report according to the Australian Health System Essay

Nursing Report according to the Australian Health System - Essay Example Due to the enormity of the issue of chronic illness, this report will focus on children between the ages of 5 and 19 years of age. This report will conclude by identifying recommendations that nurses can implement in their role as primary health practitioners. Definitions Chronic Disease: A chronic disease is characterized by having a duration â€Å"that has lasted or is expected to last at least six months. Has a pattern for recurrence, or deterioration. Has a poor prognosis and produce consequences, or sequaelae that impact the individual’s quality of life.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Diabetes (diabetes mellitus): This is a chronic condition in which â€Å"the body makes too little of the hormone insulin or cannot use it properly. This raises the blood level of the body’s major energy source, the sugar glucose, and causes other widespread disturbance of the body’s energy processes.† (Child and Youth Health Intergo vernmental Partnership, 2004) Type 1 diabetes: This is a chronic condition, which generally arises in childhood or youth and is known as ‘juvenile onset’ diabetes â€Å"marked by a complete lack of insulin and needing insulin replacement for survival.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Type 2 diabetes: The most common form of diabetes, â€Å"occurring mostly in people aged 40 years and over and marked by reduced or less effective insulin.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Cancer: This includes a â€Å"range of diseases where some of the body’s cells begin to multiply out of control, can invade, and damage the area around them, and can also spread to other parts of the body to cause further damage.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Cystic fibrosis – This is a â€Å"life threatening genetic disorder that primarily affects the respiratory system (lungs), t he digestive system (pancreas and sometimes liver) and the reproductive system. The mucus glands of people with cystic fibrosis secrete very thick sticky mucus.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Cerebral palsy: This includes a â€Å"range of disabilities associated with movement and posture. ‘ Cerebral’ refers to the brain and ‘palsy’ means weakness or lack of muscle control. The disorder is caused by a permanent, nonprogressive brain defect or lesion present at birth.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Epilepsy: This disease involves a â€Å"disturbance of brain function marked by recurrent fits and loss of consciousness.† (Child and Youth Health Intergovernmental Partnership, 2004) Background Asthma is reported to be the most common of all chronic diseases among children in Australia and is cited as well as being the most common of all reasons that children in Australia are hospita lized. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes is reported to be on the rise among children in Australia. (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005, p.2) Other chronic diseases affecting children in Australia include those of Cancer, Cystic Fibrosis, Cerebral Palsy and Epilepsy. Discussion There have been a great many possible risk factors linked to the development of chronic disease in childhood however, it is reported that of these risk factors that only a

Air Pollution and Climatic Changes Essay Example for Free

Air Pollution and Climatic Changes Essay Air pollution is actually the addition of any harmful substances to the atmosphere, which causes the damaging of the environment, human health and the quality of life. Air pollution has been a serious problem throughout the history. This can have series effect on the health of human beings. Every day, the average person inhales about 20,000 liters of air. Every time when we breathe in we inhale dangerous substances. These dangerous substances can be in the form of gases or particles. Sources of Air pollution: †¢Natural source †¢Artificial source Natural sources: Natural air pollution does not occur in abundance and also possesses little threat to health of the peoples and ecosystem. Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires, Biological decay of organic matters are some of the natural causes of air pollution. Artificial sources: The man made reasons for air pollution are vehicular emission, burning of waste products, thermal power plants, industries and refineries. Vehicular emissions are responsible for 70% of the country’s air pollution. * Bharat stage 1 to 4 emission norms are emission standards that focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles. Most sulphur dioxide comes from power plants that use coal as their fuel. Automobiles produce about half of the nitrogen oxide. When wood, household garbage, plastic, or leaves are burned, they produce smoke and release toxic gases. The smoke contains vapors and solid compounds suspended in the air called particulate matter. The particulate matter and toxic gases released during burning can be very irritating to people’s health. People who are exposed to these air pollutants can experience eye and nose irritation, breathing difficulty, coughing, and headaches. People with heart disease, asthma, emphysema, or other respiratory diseases are e specially sensitive to air pollutants Major air pollutants: †¢Sulphur oxide †¢Nitrogen oxide †¢Carbonmono oxide †¢Decomposition of organic matters. * India emits the fifth most carbon of any country in the world. * The Bhopal gas tragedy is one of the world’s worst industrial disasters that killed almost 8,000 people in December 1984. Air pollution can adversely affect human health not only by direct inhalation but indirectly by other routes through water, food and skin infections. Health hazards due to air pollution: †¢Cardio vascular diseases †¢Asthma †¢Bronchitis †¢Allergies †¢Lung and heart diseases. Consequences of Air pollution: 1.Ozone layer depletion 2.Global warming ( Greenhouse effect) 3.Acid Rain 4.Smog Ozone layer depletion The atmosphere contains a thin layer of ozone about 24 to 40 Km above earth’s surface which protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The release of chemicals such as CFC widely used in refrigerators has damaged the ozone layers. Ozone monitoring stations in Antarctica have already detected average loss of 30% to 40% of total ozone over the region. Each one percent loss of ozone is to cause an increase of about 2% in UV Radiation. This will reduce the immunity of the body and cause eye cataracts and skin cancer. For the protection of ozone layer, Montreal protocol and Vienna meet of 30 nations world wide agreed to reduce the use of CFCs. Global warming Global warming is caused by increase of greenhouse gases such as carbon-di-oxide, methane, water vapour, CFCs which are responsible for the heat retention ability of the atmosphere. The rapid increase in average temperature of earth will cause major changes in weather pattern all over the world. Rise in global temperature, will also result in the melting of polar ice caps glaciers. This in turn will raise the sea level. Land use changes will occur in coastal areas due to sea level rise. It will cause damage to coastal structures, post facilities and water management systems. Global warming also affects the agricultural patterns. Intense tropical cyclone activity has increased in the North Atlantic since about 1970 Heat waves have become more frequent over most land areas. More intense and longer droughts have been observed over wider areas since the 1970s, particularly in the tropics and subtropics If ocean temperature increases, growth of coral reefs will be affected. The corals control the proportion of carbon dioxide in water by turning them in to limestone shell. Moreover, coral reefs grow in temperature just above 10 degree Celsius. Other ecosystems such as forests and desert will also be harmed. Loss of bio-diversity and extinction of rare species will occur. Acid Rain: Acid rain was first discovered in 1852. This is one of the most important environmental problems, caused by indivisible gas given out by automobiles or coal burning by power plants. The gases that cause the acid rain are sulphur- di-oxide and nitrogen oxides. Fire and bacterial decomposition are the natural causes which increases nitrogen oxide in air. These pollutants combine with water vapour in the presence of sunlight and oxygen and forms dilute sulphuric and nitric acids. When these mixture precipitates from the atmosphere, it is called acid rain. Acid rain falls down to the earth in all forms of precipitation. Acidity in the rain can harm and even destroy both natural ecosystems and man-made products. Acid rains, when falling on oceans, reach the coral reefs. This has killed more than 70% of corals in Lakshadweep and Andaman islands. They also change the acidity level of the soil by leaching crucial nutrients. Thus it affects forest vegetation. The most basic microscopic organisms such as plankton may not be able to survive. So the sea animals depending on planktons will die and the food chain will be affected. Smog: The word smog is a combination of the words smoke and fog. Smog causes a smoky dark atmosphere, especially over cities, it decreases visibility, and creates gaze throughout the area. Smog is caused by many factors, major producers of smog include automobiles, fires, waste treatment, industries, etc. The articulates present in smog include carbon monoxide, dirt, dust. The smog effect is created when sunlight, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide are mixed together smog creates harmful health hazards like lung failure and pneumonia. Smog is not only a city problem. As smog level increases, wind carry smog away from urban areas and harm other areas too. Agriculture is also affected by smog.

Marxist And Leninist Perspectives On Colonialism History Essay

Marxist And Leninist Perspectives On Colonialism History Essay Colonialism can be defined as the control that a country or government holds over the territory and the people in a foreign country. It can also be defined as the practice of one country acquiring full or partial political control over another country. It is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies of one country in another. Also, colonialism is a term which refers to the settlement of colonies and migrates there as inhabitants. It is where a powerful country takes over a less powerful country and begins to rule that country as theirs. Colonialism and imperialism are often used inter changeably, but they are two different words having different meaning. As both colonialism and imperialism means political and economic domination of the other scholars often find it hard to differentiate the two. Although both words discuss suppression of the other, colonialism is where one nation assumes control over the other and imperialism refers to political or economic control either formally or informally. Colonialism can be thought to be a practice and imperialism as the idea driving the practice. It is also a term where a country conquers and rules over other regions. It means exploiting the resources of the resources of the conquered country for the benefit of conqueror. Karl Marx and Lenin had different views on colonialism but they both support democracy and equality. Karl Marx views colonialism as a major moment in the historical process of primitive accumulation and therefore as a precondition for the domination of the capitalist mode of production. Karl Marx influenced colonialism both post colonialism and anti colonialism. Karl Marx influenced the anti colonial independence movement around the world and the post colonial theory. Karl Marx analyzed colonialism as a progressive force which brings modernization to a society that is feudal. He also discussed how the British colonialism made impact on the Indians. Karl Marx mentioned the Indians as a feudal society who experienced modernization but in a painful manner or way. Karl Marx believed that that colonialism did not automatically lead to the prevalence of the capitalist mode of production in the colonies, since the latter as well as capital accumulation have for their fundamental condition the annihilation of that private property which rests on the labor of the individual himself. Karl Marx considered colonialism to be an indispensable feature of imperialism. The obstacle that the internal of pre-capitalist mode of production oppose to the solvent effect of trade is apparent in the English commerce with India and China. These social obstacles to capitalism advances more rapidly to wealth and greatness than any other human society. Whereas in colonies inhabited by barbarous nations was actually more difficult to displace the natives. Karl Marx used oriental despotism to describe a class domination that used the states power of taxation in order to extract resources from the peasantry. According to Marx, oriental despotism emerged in India because agricultural productivity depended on large scale public works. According to Karl Marx he said that the first stage of human development is personal dependence. He believed that every individual should be independent on his or her own. He believed that should be able to do what they want to do on their own without being controlled by someone else. Karl Marx also talked about the sufferings brought during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both necessary and ultimately progressive. He said that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a social revolution in India. This had both negative and positive consequences according to Marx. Karl Marx argued that colonial control was necessary not as a means of excluding rival industrial nations. Karl also stressed the importance of the colonial states for transforming those non-capitalist modes whose political level was crucial for their reproduction. Imperialism is thus a tendency to expansion of a developed capitalist power, a tendency created in the last instance by economic processes, but also supported by political and ideological process. Some events like the World War II, show that it was not the economically most developed capitalist country which challenged the British colonial imperialist supremacy, but an imperialist country mainly motivated by national claims against its neighboring states. After the World War II and the national liberation movements which followed, most former colonies won their national independence, which led to the dissolution of empires and to the end of colonialism. Marxist approaches to imperialism consider, though that ex-colonies and developing countries are still subordinated to imperialist countries through dependency relations. The dependence created by colonialism is still manifested in all the key spheres of the developing countries economic life. According to Lenin, he defined the struggle for national independence in colonies as essential for these colonies, as the only political course of action which could bring an end to oppression and economic misery. He also defined these struggles as inherently progressive, as the politics of the struggles of working people for social justice and showed why such anti-colonial struggles would win. In the year 1915 to 1916 argued that colonial liberation struggles were important components of the worldwide revolutionary process and he declared his conviction that many of them would succeed during the lifetime of capitalism. In the year 1917 until the end of his active life, Lenin adopted his fully matured theory of liberation in the colonial world. Lenins theory influenced the world decolonization process. Lenin stated in his theory that colonial liberation movement would succeed in the era of imperialism, that they were progressive and that they would not be bourgeois nationalist to the extent that exploited and revolutionary socialists provided them with directions. Lenin also demanded of all revolutionary socialists that they fight for the liberation of all colonies and any party in any colony-owning country which did not fight strongly for the liberation of its countrys colonies would be excluded for the international. Lenin also argued that support for colonial liberation was a direct support for the worlds revolution. As late as 1916, Lenin still hoped that it might be possible to unite political movement in colonies and the countries which own these colonies. Lenin later abandoned this vision and never returned to it. After the year 1916, Lenin never suggested not even once that that working class parties in colonies should be fused to those in the colonizing country, except as they fused into a single international. Karl Marx and Lenin taught that colonialism resulted from the same logic that drove the economic development and modernization in Europe. Lenin was skeptical of theories which placed undue emphasis of the unified global nature of capitalism which underplay the role of nations and states. He showed that capitalism cannot be reduced to the economy, by ignoring the state or the political and ideological relations of power. He emphasized that the nation state is an important influence on the way economies are organized in the normal course of capitalist development and that there are important economic forces propelling the reproduction of nation states. Capitalist power over the working classes is at the same time economic, political and ideological and it is condensed by the capitalist state in each national social formation. Lenin thought that the articulation and intertwining of all existing capitalist powers, each of which possesses a different strength and development level. It forms the worlds imperialist chain, the weakest link of which was Russia in 1917. Lenin suggested that imperialism is a permanent relationship structuring the interactions between two types of countries. Although imperialism took the form of military competition between capitalist countries, it would result in collusion between capitalist interests to maintain a stable system of exploitation of the non-developed world.

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship Introduction: In the minds of masses, entrepreneurs are placed as solo heroes who after putting a brave fight against all the odds of business world became successful. Traditionally, all theories touted entrepreneurship as an individual act but problems like scarcity of finances, inadequacy of skill set and competitive market forces gave way to a new era in entrepreneurship more commonly termed as Team Entrepreneurship. Objective: The concept and theoretical foundations in this field are still in the stage of infancy. This paper is an attempt to explore the concept of Team Entrepreneurship, trace the definitions and identify the conceptual framework on the basis of the researches done in the field. Findings: Diverse opinions regarding team-building mechanisms, composition and dynamics of the entrepreneurial teams have been observed from the literature. The study also identified the multiple facets in which the entrepreneurial team exists. A conceptual framework depicting the phenomenon of creation and operation of entrepreneurial teams have been developed. Conclusion: Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. INTRODUCTION Management and its practices in the present era has experienced major paradigm shift and one of the most prominent shift is the change in the philosophy from individual excellence to team excellence. Team players rather than solo stars are what companies look for while recruiting people. Performance is judged more specifically on the criterion laid down for the team as a whole. An innovative project these days may not be the baby of a single individual but the soul child of a team. This swing jump from solo show to the band of performers can also be observed in the case of entrepreneurship. Since the seminal work of Birch (1979), many studies have focused on small firms (as their rate of growth can frequently appear more dramatic than that achieved by larger organizations). For a long time it has been a great myth that entrepreneurship implicitly describes the battle of a lonely hero against economic, governmental and social forces (Cooney Bygrave, 1997). Lot of research work could be found where entrepreneurs were identified as individual business founders(Gartner, 1985; Hofer Sandberg, 1986; Carland, Hoy, Boulton, Carland, 1984; Olson, 1987, but team entrepreneurship as an area of study is a more recent phenomenon (Ensley et al., 1999: Kamm et al., 1990). However, over the past 15 years, team entrepreneurship has received increased attention. Based on research conducted from the inside of a fast-growing firm, Alex Stewart shows that entrepreneurship is both collective, a team-based activity and individual, a leader-made creation. It is arguable that despite the romantic notion of the entrepreneur as a lone hero, the reality is that successful entrepreneurs either built teams about them or were part of a team throughout. For example, when one considers the success of Apple Computers, the name of Steven Jobs immediately springs to mind. However, while Jobs was the charismatic folk hero and visionary, it was Steve Wozniack who invented the first PC model and Mike Markkula who offered the business expertise and access to venture capital (Sculley and Byrne, 1988). DEFINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP In the early 90s scholars (eg Kamm et al 1990, MÃ ¼ller-BÃ ¶ling and Heil 1994) explored a very important but almost undiscovered field in the entrepreneurship research namely team entrepreneurship.The studies on team ventures are scarce, they often lack a theoretical background or fail to even provide a proper definition of the researched object. Due to this lack of research it has become a real tough proposition to get a comprehensive definition of team entrepreneurship. Some researchers argue that this lack of definition and theoretical framework leads to the contradictory and some times even confusing empirical results in the field of Team Entrepreneurship. Team entrepreneurship does not view the process of entrepreneurship as a preserve of the individuals rather it is seen as a capability and attitudes whereby individual skills are integrated into, group or team, becoming partners in the businesss future evolution.This collective capacity to innovate becomes something greater than the sum of its parts. Ensley, Carland, Carland (1998), combine elements from other definitions found in the literature and establish three conditions which identify an individual as member of an entrepreneurial team: they have either (1) jointly established a firm, (2) a financial interest in, or (3) a direct influence on the strategic alignment of the venture. The most frequently employed definition is that by Kamm et al. (1990), who suggested that an entrepreneurial group is two or more individuals who jointly establish a business in which they have equal financial interest. These individuals are present at the pre-start-up phase of the firm, before it actually begins making goods or services available to the market. However, two substantive elements of this definition are subject to disagreement: (1) the inclusion of the term equal financial interest, where a more open interpretation of financial interest is required instead, and (2) the focus on pre-start-up, because an individual could possibly become a team member at any point in the maturation of the firm. The definition should additionally concentrate on new venture creation rather than on team development within an established organization. An entrepreneurial team be defined as two or more individuals who have a significant financial interest and participate actively in the development of the enterprise. The purpose of significant financial interest is in recognition of the fact that only sporadically would all partners have equal financial interest. However, the question of what constitutes significant remains undefined and should only be considered within a specific context. The intent of the phrase participate actively was designed to eliminate sleeping or silent partners (i.e. those who invest capital but do not involve themselves beyond seeking a return on their investment). Moreover, the definition excludes venture capital firms, banks, and other investment institutions since it is only concerned with individuals. A final point of note to the definition is that it was with regard to the development of the enterprise. This acknowledges the dynamic nature of the enterprise and accedes to the prospect that team membe rs can join (or leave) at any stage of the maturation of the firm. Therefore, the definition is not restricted to pre-start-up but embraces the concept of entrepreneurial teams as fluid and evolutionary. Leon Shjeodt developed another comprehensive definition of entrepreneurial team as a team consisting of two or more persons who have an interest, both financial and otherwise, in and commitment to the ventures future and success; whose work is interdependent in the pursuit of common goals and venture success; who are accountable to the entrepreneurial team and for the venture; who are considered to be at the executive level with executive responsibility in the early phases of the venture, including founding and pre-start up; and who are seen as a social entity by themselves and by others. This definition again brought forward that such team are not necessarily created as pre-start-up rather can be formed at the later stages. Interdependence of the team members for venture performance and accountability are also incorporated alongwith the identity of entrepreneurial teams as a social entity. FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS Research has shown that teams start a significant number of new ventures, or a team is created within the first years of start up (Kamm, Shuman, Seeger, Nurick, 1990; Watson, Ponthieu, Critelli, 1995), the quality and composition of the team is a critical determinant of organizational performance (Glick, Miller, Huber, 1993; Hambrick, 1994). According to Cooper and Daily (1997), an entrepreneurial team is more than a group because it involves a shared commitment to the new venture, but they stop short of defining what shared commitment is. Katzenbach (1997) suggests that what must be shared is the accountability. Eisenhardt and Schoonhovens (1990) contribution in defining entrepreneurial team considered: a group of people holding full-time executive positions at the time of founding. Whereas Leon Schjeodt emphasised that it is not necessary to be in the pre-start up or founding phases of the venture to be a part of the entrepreneurial team. It is possible for a person to be considered a part of the entrepreneurial team if the person is brought into the venture in the early phases to help establish the venture. The composition of the entrepreneurial team refers to the collective characteristics of its members (e.g., Banter Jackson, 1989). Entrepreneurial teams are most effective if they balance their skills, knowledge, and abilities as Cooper and Daily (1997) suggest. Heterogeneity in the entrepreneurial teams composition is needed for the team to achieve a high level of effectiveness and venture performance. TMT functional heterogeneity increases the likelihood of strategic change (Lant, Milliken, Batra, 1992; Wiersema Bantel, 1992), increases strategic consensus (Knight et al., 1999), and enhances performance (Bunderson Sutcliffe, 2002), but it can also create cognitive and affective conflict (Amason, 1996; Kamm Nurick, 1993; Miller, Burke, Glick, 1998). Despite this conflict, research suggests that heterogeneous TMTs perform better because their ability to leverage multiple perspectives improves their decision making (e.g., Miller et al., 1998 Simons, Pelled, Smith, 1999). Demographic diversity does not play a very significant role in team formation and composition. Sanjib Chowdhury(2005) suggests that demographic diversity is not important for entrepreneurial team effectiveness, whereas the team process variables positively influence team effectiveness. He also identified that the diversity in terms of gender, age and functional background does not contribute to the team-level cognitive comprehensiveness and team commitment Another aspect of composition is time and its affect on the team. As mentioned earlier, it was found that effects of diversity, especially for demographic characteristics, within the entrepreneurial team decreased over time as the ET engaged in lengthy discussions and solved disagreements and complex problems (Glicket al., 1993; Harrison, Price, Bell, 1998) Two principles of team formation dominate the strategic management literature on teams, although most research concerns the upper echelons of established firms, rather than startups (Forbes et al., 2006).First, a rational process model of team formation emphasizes selecting members based on pragmatic instrumental criteria, such as complementary skills or work experiences. From this viewpoint, competency should shape team formation so that new ventures possess the capabilities needed to manage complexity and growth. Second, a social psychological model emphasizes the interpersonal fit between team members and the need for smoothly functioning group processes. Many scholars have pointed to the important role that social and emotional support play in affecting human behavior (Thoits, 1984). For example, positive social relations within a team can create a supportive context within which people are encouraged to undertake innovative actions. The two sets of principles are not mutually ex clusive. Within the constraints of interpersonal attraction, teams can still search instrumentally for members. Similarly, within the constraints of resource-based needs, teams can still choose people who are attractive. SUSTAINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Setting up of an entrepreneurial venture jointly is one aspect but sustaining entrepreneurial groups poses a big challenge. When educated, skilled and dynamic individuals join hands for a venture in the entrepreneurial capacity then firms must assure that their organizational environment is closely matched to their heterogeneity of mental models (e.g.,diversity of ideas and entrepreneurial skills) at all levels, especially at upper-level management. However, an organization composed of individuals with very similar perceptions of the potential services from firms resources and the competitive environment is likely to have a truncated set of productive opportunities. In team entrepreneurship, the team can be as effective as the creative inputs provided by its members, which can expand and be enriched when members learn from each others diverse ideas, perceptions, and expectations. Also, with the inclusion of complementary skills in the team, the cooperative entrepreneurial team can ty pically overcome the limitations of its individual members (Barnard, 1938). An informal organization culture is required to encourage continuous resource learning through interactions in teams. Under conditions that inhibit creative thinking, entrepreneurial experimentation, and risk taking, human resources are likely to function substantially below their full entrepreneurial capacity. It is of utmost important that an environment be created to avoid stifling of creativity of individuals that mar many firms. Individuals must have freedom and opportunities in order to imagine different services of resources, to deploy individual entrepreneurial capital, to renew the firms unique productive opportunity set, and to mobilize invisible assets (Itami Roehl,1987). Individuals are not only allowed to think creatively, but are also encouraged to voice their creative ideas and visions about new product ideas and novel ways to utilize resources. An entrepreneurially stimulating environment provides individuals with resource flexibility and slack for calculative experimentation (Barry, 1991; Dobrev Barnett, 2005; Mosakowski, 1997), which helps mobilize the cognitive assets of the firm that are in the form of heterogeneous mental models. Resource learning and organizational learning involve taking risks, making mistakes, and experimenting with novel solutions and ideas. Pervasive fear of failure and punishment instilled in employees does not belong to entrepreneurial environments, as it can severely constrict risk- taking and resource learning (McGrath McMillan, 2000). Besides seeking creative thinking, effective entrepreneurship requires investments in ideas and rewarding entrepreneurial thinking and experimentation both at the individual level and at the team level. An effective allocation of inducements to encourage entrepreneurial efforts requires recognition of the diversity of individual needs, as some individuals are more interested in material benefits while others are more motivated by social benefits and entrepreneurial engagement. Furthermore, the element of time as a scarce resource (Mahoney, 2005; Mosakowski,1993) deserves special attention in entrepreneurship research because developing a productive opportunity set for the firm requires personal (tacit) knowledge of the firms material and human resources, which can only be developed over time as entrepreneurs interact and experiment with the firms bundle of resources. Importance of time management is also be attributed to the diverse mental inputs as the entrepreneurs need time and place to think and function together to produce synergistic cognitive outcomes. KEY ATTRIBUTES OF TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP Based upon the review of researches done on the definitional and compositional aspects of entrepreneurial teams some of the key factors of team entrepreneurship can be identified as follows: Entrepreneurship is no more a lone action. Team based approach is required to lead to fast growth. One of the major forces that led to the evolution of team entrepreneurship is the entry level barriers that confronted small firms. To overcome the restrictions imposed by large firms on entry, many Small and medium sized firms formed themselves into teams. A jointly established business by a group of individuals as well as any individual joining the firm at a later stage in the entrepreneurial capacity comes under the preview of team entrepreneurship. That would mean a team formed for new venture creation where all members will be founder member/ a person joining the founder team at a later stage/ teams formed within an enterprise for entrepreneurial ventures. Within an organisation, entrepreneurial teams may exist at different levels. Top management teams (TMT), corporate entrepreneurship, shop-floor entrepreneurship etc are such teams that are created within the organization for innovation and creativity. Entrepreneurial groups do not incorporate passive or sleeping members. Active participation in strategic, managerial and operational level is warranted. Only that individual can be considered as a member of entrepreneurial team who bears direct influence on strategic areas of the venture. Need for personal risk taking is reduced as team entrepreneurship marks sharing of financial interests. Sharing may or may not be equal but a significant financial interest in the venture is required by the individual to be a member of entrepreneurial team. Pooling of financial resources and sharing of financial risks are the key drivers for team ventures. A diverse skill set is available in an entrepreneurial team. Individual limitations are overcome and synergic effects can be observed very lucidly. The individual knowledge, capabilities and attributes get integrated into a team hence leading to success of the venture. Issues of group dynamics need to be addressed in team entrepreneurship. Issues related to control, ownership, role; responsibilities etc need to be handled at the very outset to avoid problems at later stage. Too many contributing minds can pose a problem as well. Diversity in terms of demography, culture, skill set, knowledge and experience etc at one hand may be the strength of the team but if not taken care of may lead to dysfunctional conflict among the teams. Informal social interaction, friendship, time for discussions, respect for individual opinion and team opinion being given the highest regard, creative environment are some of the factors that may keep the dysfunctional conflicts at bay and might be helpful in sustaining such teams. Innovation and creativity are the key ingredients of entrepreneurial teams. Innovative thinking and creativity in decision making will keep the individuals with entrepreneurial instincts bound in a team. Brain-storming of new ideas, creative methods of working and creating and innovation of new modes, techniques or project as team provide thrill for such individuals and may be may be instrumental in key the team together and performing. FORMS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS The team phenomenon in entrepreneurship is visible in many forms , Johannisson has observed two different perspectives in identifying existence of group entrepreneurship First perspective regards teaming up of individuals as the way of initiating and organizing the entrepreneurial process and second perspective is group entrepreneurship as regards the outcome of entrepreneurial processes. Family Business: Family Businesses are operated by and for families with the intention of keeping the firm within the family after succession. Members of the family run their business collectively hence represent an image of group entrepreneurship. Partnership: Partnership refers to teaming up of individuals for venturing into some common business. In that context partnership gets associated with group entrepreneurship. Co-operatives: Cooperatives offer a formal structure with joint ownership and control and hence visibly represents the group entrepreneurship. TMT: Top management teams can either be the founder teams of new venture or teams created within an organization for leadership role. Virtual organisations: It is a mode of organizing where independent partner firms put in a joint effort to materialize the promises carried by the leading firms products to its customers. The challenge is to make the customer perceive the virtual organisation as a whole.(Johannisson 2002: 18). Extrapreneurship: For Daval (2002), it materializes by the development of a new entity by an employee when he leaves his firm, helped in taking this step by his former employer. Extrapreneurship is now more commonly adopted by a group of employees leaving their respective organisation and joining their skill set to start new venture Shop floor entrepreneurship: Shop floor entrepreneurship refers to the concept of self-organising groups and teams created for entrepreneurial purposes by employees at shop floor level. According to Johannisson (2002: 19), Sweden and other Scandinavian countries have a long tradition of self-organising in groups on the shop floor (in contrast to intrapreneurship that usually focuses middle-management). Corporate entrepreneurship: Johannisson (2002) seems to refer to intrapreneurship here (The intrapreneur, operating a quasi-independent venture within the corporation as an arena for entrepreneurship. Corporate Entrepreneurship (CE) is the process by which individuals inside organisations pursue opportunities without regard to the resources they currently control (Stevenson, Roberts, and Grousbeck, 1999) Intellectual Entrepreneurship Johannisson et al. (1999) have introduced the notion of intellectual entrepreneur to depict those people who mobilise their intellectual capabilities in an entrepreneurial career. Community entrepreneurship: Johannisson and Nilsson (1989) have introduced the notion of community entrepreneur to capture persons who use personal networking to mobilize internal as well as external resources to promote local venturing processes. FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP To create a conceptual framework of team entrepreneurship on the basis of available inputs on entrepreneurial teams, the factors affecting such teams at different stages of team formation, composition and sustenance dynamics have been identified. Entrepreneurial teams can be formed either at prestart-up stage and/or at post start up stage .New ventures, partnership firms, extrapreneurship specifically fall under the category of pre-start-up teams, corporate entrepreneurship and shop floor entrepreneurship come under the category of post start-up teams and TMTs, family businesses, cooperatives, virtual organizations, intellectual entrepreneurship etc can either be forms as pre start up or post start up teams. Forms of entrepreneurial teams can also be viewed from the aspect of level of management at which such teams operates. For that purpose TMTs are formed at top level, corporate entrepreneurial teams at middle level and shop-floor teams at operational level. Regarding the team comp osition, issues as to why team is required and who can be the part of the team need to be addressed. As is obvious by now, the rationale behind creating a team rather than functioning solo is sharing of resources, skills, risk, knowledge etc an effective entrepreneurial team may be composed of individual with wide knowledge, skills and competencies. Such individuals must not be averse to risk and experimentation. Creativity and innovation should be the drivers of such individuals. Sustenance of such teams require a great deal of managing group dynamics. Diversity in demography and cultural may not be instrumental in enhancing performance but can be a deterrent if not handled well. Variable mental inputs and variable degree of creative and innovation instincts may also give rise to conflicts.Figure 1-1 tabulates all the factors affecting team entrepreneurship FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP TEAM FORMATION* TEAM COMPOSITION TEAM DYNAMICS As per joining of team members: Resource-sharing Risk-sharing Complementary skill set Enriching knowledge and competency base Experience Experimentation Risk-seeking Innovation Creativity Social interaction Diversity in skills Diverse mental inputs Demographic heterogeneity Interpersonal relations Cultural diversity Time Diverse appetite of creativity Diverse cognitive needs Pre-start-up teams: New venture teams, Extrapreneurship, partnership family business, cooperatives, virtual organisations etc Post-start-up teams: TMTs, Corporate entrepreneurship, Shop-floor entrepreneurship, cooperatives, family business, virtual organisations etc As per levels of Management Strategic level: TMT Tactic level: corporate entrepreneurship Operational level: shop-floor entrepreneurship *forms of teams are not mutually exclusive CONCLUSION As again the notion of entrepreneurship being a solo act, several researchers have proved that the present is the era of teams. No person is equipped enough to build an empire all by himself. No conqueror has won the battle alone, no CEO can run a company without a team. Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Another notion of entrepreneurial team being the team of founder who start a new venture has also been proved lop-sided. Existence of entrepreneurial teams can be traced in various forms and at multiple levels. This paper was an attempt to bring together the knowledge created by many researchers but may suffer from many limitations. The studies considered for the review are not exhaustive and hence the findings may also not be exhaustive. A lot of further research need to be d one on the topic because team entrepreneurship is going to be the buzz-word for the future. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. *Assistant professor, GNIMT, Model Town Ludhiana